Selasa, 26 Februari 2008

Physiology of The Eye - Air Mata (Tears)

Air mata Diproduksi oleh sistem kelenjar air mata :
1.1. Glandula lacrimalis asesorius Krause dan Wolfring (sekresi dasar)
2.
Glandula lakrimalis utama mayor (sekresi refleks).

Fungsi air mata :
1. Melicinkan permukaan optik bola mata
2. Media pelepasan sel ‘desquamasi’.
3. Suplai oksigen ke kornea
4. Antimikroba
5. Lubrikasi pergesekan palpebra dan kornea
6. Mencegah pengeringan permukaan luar bola mata

Lapisan air mata :
1. Lapisan lipid (atas), diproduksi oleh glandula meibom. Fungsi :
- Memperlambat menguapan air mata
- Mempertahankan barier hidrofobik
- Mempertahankan tear meniskus

2. Lapaisan akuous (tengah), diproduksi oleh kelejar Krause & Wolfring. Fungsi :
- Suplai oksigen
- Antimikroba
- Meratakan permukaan kornea
- Membersihkan kotoran
- Mengatur fungsi sel-sel epitel kornea



Physiology Of The Eye - Palpebra

Fungsi Palpebra:
Mencegah ruda paksa
Mencegah cahaya yang menyilaukan
Membantu menyebarkan air mata

Terdapat 2 otot penting pada papebra :
1. M. Levator palpebra
- Elevasi (angkat palpebra)
sinergis dengan m. frontalis dan
m.rectus superior
2. M. Orbicularis oculi
- Mengedipkan mata ….. Pars palpebralis
- Menutup mata ……..pars orbitalis

Tiga gerakan palpebra :
1. Menutup kontraksi m.orb.okuli (N.VII) & relaksasi m.levator palpebra superior. M.riolani menahan bgn belakang palp. thd dorongan bola mata
2. Membuka kontraksi m.levator palp. sup.(N.III). M.Muller mempertahankan mata tetap terbuka
3. Proses berkedip (blink): refleks (didahului stimuli) dan spontan (tdk didahului stimuli) kontraksi m.orb. okuli pars palpebra.

Physiology Of The Eye - General


The human eye is the organ which gives us the sense of sight, allowing us to learn more about the surrounding world than we do with any of the other four senses. We use our eyes in almost every activity we perform, whether reading, working, watching television, writing a letter, driving a car, and in countless other ways. Most people probably would agree that sight is the sense they value more than all the rest.

The eye allows us to see and interpret the shapes, colors, and dimensions of objects in the world by processing the light they reflect or emit. The eye is able to detect bright light or dim light, but it cannot sense objects when light is absent.

Light waves from an object (such as a tree) enter the eye first through the cornea, which is the clear dome at the front of the eye. The light then progresses through the pupil, the circular opening in the center of the colored iris.

Fluctuations in incoming light change the size of the eye’s pupil. When the light entering the eye is bright enough, the pupil will constrict (get smaller), due to the pupillary light response.

Initially, the light waves are bent or converged first by the cornea, and then further by the crystalline lens (located immediately behind the iris and the pupil), to a nodal point (N) located immediately behind the back surface of the lens. At that point, the image becomes reversed (turned backwards) and inverted (turned upside-down).

The light continues through the vitreous humor, the clear gel that makes up about 80% of the eye’s volume, and then, ideally, back to a clear focus on the retina, behind the vitreous. The small central area of the retina is the macula, which provides the best vision of any location in the retina. If the eye is considered to be a type of camera, the retina is equivalent to the film inside of the camera, registering the tiny photons of light interacting with it.

Within the layers of the retina, light impulses are changed into electrical signals. Then they are sent through the optic nerve, along the visual pathway, to the occipital cortex at the posterior (back) of the brain. Here, the electrical signals are interpreted or “seen” by the brain as a visual image.

Actually, then, we do not “see” with our eyes but, rather, with our brains. Our eyes merely are the beginnings of the visual process.


Kamis, 24 Januari 2008

BLEFARITIS


A. PENDAHULUAN
Blefaritis adalah radang pada kelopak mata. Radang yang sering terjadi pada kelopak merupakan radang kelopak dan tepi kelopak. Radang bertukak atau tidak pada tepi kelopak bisanya melibatkan folikel dan kelenjar rambut. Blefaritis ditandai dengan pembentukan minyak berlebihan di dalam kelenjar di dekat kelopak mata yang merupakan lingkungan yang disukai oleh bakteri yang dalam keadaan normal ditemukan di kulit.
Blefaritis dapat disebabkan infeksi dan alergi yang biasanya berjalan kronis atau menahun. Blefaritis alergi dapat terjadi akibat debu, asap, bahan kimia, iritatif, dan bahan kosmetik. Infeksi kelopak dapat disebabkan kuman streptococcus alfa atau beta, pneumococcus, dan pseudomonas. Di kenal bentuk blefaritis skuamosa, blefaritis ulseratif, dan blefaritis angularis.
Gejala umum pada blefaritis adalah kelopak mata merah, bengkak, sakit, eksudat lengket dan epiforia. Blefaritis sering disertai dengan konjungtivitis dan keratitis.
Biasanya blefaritis sebelum diobati dibersihkan dengan garam fisiologik hangat, dan kemudian diberikan antibiotik yang sesuia. Penyulit blefaritis yang dapat timbul adalah konjungtivitis, keratitis, hordeolum, kalazoin, dan madarosis.

B. PATOFISIOLOGI
Patofisiologi blefaritis biasanya terjadi kolonisasi bakteri pada mata. Hal ini mengakibatkan invasi mikrobakteri secara langsung pada jaringan ,kerusakan sistem imun atau kerusakan yang disebabkan oleh produksi toksin bakteri , sisa buangan dan enzim. Kolonisasi dari tepi kelopak mata dapat ditingkatkan dengan adanya dermatitis seboroik dan kelainan fungsi kelenjar meibom.

C. ANATOMI

Kelopak atau palpebra mempunyai fungsi melindungi bola mata, serta mengeluarkan sekresi kelenjarnya yang membentuk film air mata di depan kornea. Palpebra merupakan alat penutup mata yang berguna untukmelindungi bola mata terhapat trauma, trauma sinar dan pengeringan mata.
Kelopak mempunyai lapisan kulit yang tipis pada bagian depan sedang di bagian belakang ditutupi selaput lendir tarsus yang disebut konjungtiva tarsal.
Pada kelopak terdapat bagian-bagian :
• Kelenjar seperti kelenjar sebasea, kelenjar moll atau kelenjar keringat, kelenjar zeis pada pangkal rambut, dan kelenjar meibom pada tarsus.
• Otot seperti : M. Orbikularis okuli yang berjalan melingkar di dalam kelopak atas dan bawah, dan terletak di bawah kulit kelopak. M. Orbikularis berfungsi menutup bola mata yang dipersarafi N. fasial. M. Levator palpebra berfungsi untuk mengangkat kelopak mata atau membuka mata.
• Di dalam kelopak terdapak tarsus yang merupakan jaringan ikat dengan kelenjar di dalamnya atau kelenjar Meibom yang bermuara pada margo palpebra.
• Septum orbita yang merupakan jaringan fibrosa berasal dari rima orbita merupakan pembatas isi orbita dengan kelopak depan.


D. ETIOLOGI
Terdapat 2 jenis blefaritis, yaitu :
1. Blefaritis anterior : mengenai kelopak mata bagian luar depan (tempat melekatnya bulu mata). Penyebabnya adalah bakteri stafilokokus dan seborrheik. Blefaritis stafilokok dapat disebabkan infeksi dengan Staphylococcus aureus, yang sering ulseratif, atau Staphylococcus epidermidis atau stafilokok koagulase-negatif. Blefaritis seboroik(non-ulseratif) umumnya bersamaan dengan adanya Pityrosporum ovale.
2. Blefaritis posterior : mengenai kelopak mata bagian dalam (bagian kelopak mata yang lembab, yang bersentuhan dengan mata). Penyebabnya adalah kelainan pada kelenjar minyak. Dua penyakit kulit yang bisa menyebabkan blefaritis posterior adalah rosasea dan ketombe pada kulit kepala (dermatitis seboreik).

E. KLASIFIKASI
1. Blefaritis superfisial
Bila infeksi kelopak superfisial disebabkan oleh staphylococcus maka pengobatan yang terbaik adalah dengan salep antibiotik seperti sulfasetamid dan sulfisolksazol. Sebelum pemberian antibiotik krusta diangkat dengan kapas basah. Bila terjadi blefaritis menahun maka dilakukan penekanan manual kelenjar Meibom untuk mengeluarkan nanah dari kelenjar Meibom (Meibormianitis), yang biasanya menyertai.1
2. Blefaritis Seboroik
Blefaritis sebore biasanya terjadi pada laki-laki usia lanjut (50 Tahun), dengan keluhan mata kotor, panas dan rasa kelilipan. Gejalanya adalah sekret yang keluar dari kelenjar Meiborn, air mata berbusa pada kantus lateral, hiperemia dan hipertropi papil pada konjungtiva. Pada kelopak dapat terbentuk kalazion, hordeolum, madarosis, poliosis dan jaringan keropeng.
Blefaritis seboroik merupakan peradangan menahun yang sukar penanganannya. Pengobatannya adalah dengan memperbaiki kebersihan dan membersihkan kelopak dari kotoran. Dilakukan pembersihan dengan kapas lidi hangat. Kompres hangat selama 5-10 menit. Kelenjar Meibom ditekan dan dibersihkan dengan shampoo bayi. Penyulit yang dapat timbul berupa flikten, keratitis marginal, tukak kornea, vaskularisasi, hordeolum dan madarosis.
3. Blefaritis Skuamosa
Blefaritis skuamosa adalah blefaritis disertai terdapatnya skuama atau krusta pada pangkal bulu mata yang bila dikupas tidak mengakibatkan terjadinya luka kulit. Merupakan peradangan tepi kelopak terutama yang mengenai kulit di daerah akar bulu mata dan sering terdapat pada orang yang berambut minyak. Blefaritis ini berjalan bersama dermatitik seboroik.
Penyebab blefaritis skuamosa adalah kelainan metabolik ataupun oleh jamur. Pasien dengan blefaritis skuamosa akan terasa panas dan gatal. Pada blefaritis skuamosa terdapat sisik berwarna halus-halus dan penebalan margo palpebra disertai madarosis. Sisik ini mudah dikupas dari dasarnya mengakibatkan perdarahan.
Pengobatan blefaritis skuamosa ialah dengan membersihkan tepi kelopak dengan shampoo bayi, salep mata, dan steroid setempat disertai dengan memperbaiki metabolisme pasien. Penyulit yang dapat terjadi pada blefaritis skuamosa adalah keratitis, konjungtivitis.
4. Blefaritis Ulseratif
Merupakan peradangan tepi kelopak atau blefaritis dengan tukak akibat infeksi staphylococcus. Pada blefaritis ulseratif terdapat keropeng berwarna kekunung-kuningan yang bila diangkat akan terlihat ulkus yang yang kecil dan mengeluarkan dfarah di sekitar bulu mata. Pada blewfaritis ulseratif skuama yang terbentuk bersifat kering dan keras, yang bila diangkat akan luka dengan disertai perdarahan. Penyakit bersifat sangat infeksius. Ulserasi berjalan lebih lanjut dan lebih dalam dan merusak folikel rambut sehingga mengakibatkan rontok (madarosis).
Pengobatan dengan antibiotik dan higiene yang baik. Pengobatan pada blefaritis ulseratif dapat dengan sulfasetamid, gentamisin atau basitrasin. Biasanya disebabkan stafilokok maka diberi obat staphylococcus. Apabila ulseratif luas pengobatan harus ditambah antibiotik sistemik dan diberi roboransia.
Penyulit adalah madarosis akibat ulserasi berjalan lanjut yang merusak folikel rambut, trikiasis, keratitis superfisial, keratitis pungtata, hordeolum dan kalazion. Bila ulkus kelopak ini sembuh maka akan terjadi tarikan jaringan parut yang juga dapat berakibat trikiasis.
5. Blefaritis angularis
Blefaritis angularis merupakan infeksi staphylococcus pada tepi kelopak di sudut kelopak atau kantus. Blefaritis angularis yang mengenai sudut kelopak mata (kantus eksternus dan internus) sehingga dapat mengakibatkan gangguan pada fungsi puntum lakrimal. Blefariris angularis disebabkan Staphylococcus aureus. Biasanya kelainan ini bersifat rekuren.
Blefaritis angularis diobati dengan sulfa, tetrasiklin dan Sengsulfat. Penyulit pada pungtum lakrimal bagian medial sudut mata yang akan menyumbat duktus lakrimal.
6. Meibomianitis
Merupakan infeksi pada kelenjar Meibom yang akan mengakibatkan tanda peradangan lokal pada kelenjar tersebut. Meibomianitis menahun perlu pengobatan kompres hangat, penekanan dan pengeluaran nanah dari dalam berulang kali disertai antibiotik lokal.

F. GAMBARAN KLINIK
Gejala :
1. Blefaritis menyebabkan kemerahan dan penebalan, bisa juga terbentuk sisik dan keropeng atau luka terbuka yang dangkal pada kelopak mata.
2. Blefaritis bisa menyebabkan penderita merasa ada sesuatu di matanya.
Mata dan kelopak mata terasa gatal, panas dan menjadi merah.
Bisa terjadi pembengkakan kelopak mata dan beberapa helai bulu mata rontok.
3. Mata menjadi merah, berair dan peka terhadap cahaya terang.
Bisa terbentuk keropeng yang melekat erat pada tepi kelopak mata; jika keropeng dilepaskan, bisa terjadi perdarahan. Selama tidur, sekresi mata mengering sehingga ketika bangun kelopak mata sukar dibuka.
Tanda :
• Skuama pada tepi kelopak
• Jumlah bulu mata berkurang
• Obstruksi dan sumbatan duktus meibom
• Sekresi Meibom keruh
• Injeksi pada tepi kelopak
• Abnormalitas film air mata

G. DIAGNOSA
Diagnosis ditegakkan berdasarkan gejala dan hasil pemeriksaan kelopak mata.

H. PENATALAKSANAAN
Pengobatan utama adalah membersihkan pinggiran kelopak mata untuk mengangkat minyak yang merupakan makanan bagi bakteri. Bisa digunakan sampo bayi atau pembersih khusus. Untuk membantu membasmi bakteri kadang diberikan salep antibiotik (misalnya erythromycin atau sulfacetamide) atau antibiotik per-oral (misalnya tetracycline). Jika terdapat dermatitis seboroik, harus diobati. Jika terdapat kutu, bisa dihilangkan dengan mengoleskan jeli petroleum pada dasar bulu mata.

I. PROGNOSIS
Pada blefaritis prognosis sangat baik dan dapat hilang dengan terapi.

Rabu, 01 Agustus 2007

Drug detoxification

Meditox offers a new approach to Opiate Addiction and dependency that will allow you to immediately and painlessly return to work and family. A confidential, personalized, safe and effective drug detox from opioid-based medications that include Methadone, Oxycontin, Vicodin, Hydrocodone and all Painkillers are available without hospitalization. The Meditox Method eliminates the anxiety, sleeplessness, and debilitating aches normally associated with opiate detoxification making your transition back to a normal life as smooth as possible.

Meditox has developed a revolutionary drug treatment method that utilizes buprenorphine (also known as Subutex or Suboxone) combined with one-on-one "detox coaching" by trained clinicians. It is a rapid detox. Their medical professionals are specifically certified in the dispensation of Suboxone treatment and are available around the clock to assist you or your loved one through the drug detox process. Follow your personalized Meditox treatment plan and your opiate detox will be painless and private without any unnecessary disruption to your normal, daily life. Not everyone needs (or can afford) a 30-, 60-, or 90-day inpatient residential drug rehab program that requires a separation from family, friends and/or work. Maintain your commitments and immediately begin to pick up where you left off with their discreet Meditox outpatient detox program.

The Meditox Method has been carefully designed by addiction specialists and medical professionals to offer the most effective treatment possible while allowing patients to continue living their normal lives with as little disturbance as possible.

Meditox offers an economical and time-efficient solution to opiate detoxification versus inpatient drug rehabs or hospitalization, which require a patient to be relatively confined from anywhere from 7 days to a month.

With the Meditox Method:

• The patient makes just 1 visit to a Meditox office for a thorough assessment, and then returns home to finish a customized six-week program.

• Meditox uses a series of medications that minimize the painful effects of detox and drug withdrawal.

• Patients are able to recover safely in the comfort of their own homes, while continuing with their normal daily activities of work, school, family, etc.

• The Meditox Method’s protocol helps to deter drug cravings and minimize the risks of relapse.

• Meditox is much less expensive than hospital stays and drug rehabs, which can cost tens of thousands of dollars in addition to income that might be lost while taking time off from work. Meditox patients visit an office once, then go home and can generally return to their jobs, school or any other commitments within a couple of days.

Selasa, 31 Juli 2007

Alcohol rehabilitation center

Drug and alcohol abuse can happen to anyone. Addiction doesn’t respect social boundaries, or income gaps. Living in a nice neighborhood won’t make you safe from drug and alcohol abuse. Neither will driving a fancy car or sporting a big bank account. The truth, simply stated, is that drug and alcohol abuse is a disease, and like all diseases it’s an equal opportunity victimizer. The good news, of course, is that drug and alcohol rehab can help you beat substance abuse for good…but only if you’re willing to seek it out.

Your drug and alcohol detox program will only be as successful as you allow it to be. Remember, addiction is a profoundly personal disease. Alcohol and drug abuse treatment, in turn, must be a profoundly personal process. No one can get better for you in a drug and alcohol rehabilitation facility. No one can heal you against your will, or take you anywhere you refuse to go by yourself. If you’re going to get better, in other words, you’re going to have to work for it. Anything less simply won’t get the job done.You don’t need to be told what’s at stake here. Drug and alcohol rehabilitation programs change lives. In fact, your drug and alcohol treatment program might just save your life, provided you can muster the courage to make a commitment to it. For your own sake, here’s hoping you find the strength to do what you must. You will never, ever, make a more important decision.

The only successful intervention is that which convinces an addict to enroll in an addiction treatment program. Period. There is no other reason to conduct a drug and alcohol treatment, no other goal of the crisis intervention process. If someone you care about is a victim of substance abuse, he can’t get better outside of a substance abuse treatment facility. And he can’t enter a substance abuse treatment facility until he’s accepted the truth about his substance abuse problem. More often than not, that acceptance comes through the intervention process.

Interventions save lives. That might sound melodramatic, but it’s the truth. The practical implication here is that you have to seek help before you embark upon the journey. The intervention services offered by private rehab facilities are very often instrumental in shaping the outcome of the intervention process. The right intervention specialist, in fact, can make all the difference in the world. You owe it to yourself, and to the addict you care about, to learn that truth on your own terms.

Minggu, 01 April 2007

20 tips for permanent weight loss

Weight maintenance is much like weight loss. The principles are essentially

the same: Eat healthy foods, control your portion sizes and exercise regularly.
And to keep the pounds off permanently, you need to incorporate the new, healthy
behaviors into your routine so that they become a natural part of your daily
life.


Here are 20 ideas to reinforce your healthy lifestyle and to keep you
committed to permanent weight loss.


  1. Exercise 30 to 60 minutes each day. If
    time is limited, exercise for several brief periods throughout the day — for
    example, three 10-minute sessions rather than one 30-minute session.
  2. Eat three healthy meals during the day, including
    a good breakfast.
    Skipping meals causes increased hunger and may lead
    to excessive snacking.
  3. Focus on fruits and vegetables. Top off
    your morning cereal with sliced strawberries or bananas. Stir berries or peaches
    in yogurt or cottage cheese. Liven up your sandwiches with vegetables, such as
    tomato, lettuce, onion, peppers and cucumber.
  4. Weigh yourself regularly. Monitoring your
    weight can tell you whether your efforts are working and can help you detect
    small weight gains before they become even larger.
  5. Don't keep comfort foods in the house. If
    you tend to eat high-fat, high-calorie foods when you're upset or depressed or
    bored, don't keep them around. Availability of food is one of the strongest
    factors in determining how much a person eats.
  6. Plan a family activity. Get the family
    together to go for a bike ride, play disc golf or kick the ball around in the
    yard.
  7. Eat healthy foods first. Eat foods that
    are healthy and low in calories first so that when it comes time to enjoy your
    favorites — sweets or junk food, for example — you won't be so hungry.
  8. Pay attention to portions. Serve meals
    already dished onto plates instead of placing serving bowls on the table. Take
    slightly less than what you think you'll eat. You can always have seconds, if
    really necessary.
  9. Create opportunities to be active. Wash
    your car at home instead of going to the car wash. Bike or walk to the store.
    Participate in your kid's activities at the playground or park.
  10. Sit down together for family meals. Avoid
    eating in front of the television. TV viewing strongly affects how much and what
    people eat.
  11. See what you eat. Eating directly from a
    container gives you no sense of how much you're eating. Seeing food on a plate
    or in a bowl keeps you aware of how much you're eating.
  12. Vary your activities. Regularly change
    your activity routine to avoid exercise burnout. Walk a couple of days, swim
    another and go for a bike ride on the weekend. Seek out new activities — karate,
    ballroom dancing, cross-country skiing, tennis or Pilates.
  13. De-stress your day. Stress can cause you
    to eat more. Develop strategies that can help you relax when you find yourself
    becoming stressed. Exercise, deep breathing, muscle relaxation techniques and
    even a good laugh can ease stress.
  14. Eat at home. People eat more food in
    restaurants than at home. Limit how often you eat at restaurants. If you do eat
    out, decide what and how much you're going to eat before you start and have the
    rest boxed to go.
  15. Plan healthy snacks. The best snacks
    include fruits, vegetables, whole grains and low-fat dairy products. Fruit
    smoothies, sliced fresh fruit and yogurt, whole-grain crackers, and carrot and
    celery sticks with peanut butter are all good choices.
  16. Start your day with a high-fiber breakfast
    cereal,
    such as bran flakes, shredded wheat or oatmeal. Opt for cereals
    with "bran" or "fiber" in the name. Or add a few tablespoons of unprocessed
    wheat bran to your favorite cereal.
  17. Walk for 10 minutes over your lunch hour
    or get up a few minutes earlier in the morning and go for a short walk.
  18. Plan a week's worth of meals at a time.
    Make a detailed grocery list to eliminate last-minute trips to the grocery store
    and impulse buys.
  19. Look for a distraction when you're fighting a
    craving.
    Call a friend, put on music and dance or exercise, clean the
    house, pull weeds in your garden, or run an errand. When your mind is occupied
    with something else, the cravings quickly go away.
  20. Reward yourself. Losing weight and
    keeping the pounds off is a major accomplishment. Celebrate your success with
    nonfood rewards, such as new clothes or an outing with friends.